By: Irene Cohen and Ellie Mulvaney

Since the beginning of the earth, from the first single celled organisms to modern species, evolution has developed life as we know it. We see variance in this evolution all around us in the diverse animals that span our environment (for example, the genus canis includes the species: wolfs, dogs, jackals, and coyotes).

With many examples in nature such as this, a frequent question refers to whether or not modern day humans (genus homo) have separate species. Race, though sometimes believed to be, is not a difference in species. Humans everywhere are Homo sapiens, no matter the slight phenotypical differences between them.

To understand this, we have to go back in time to the earliest humans. According to Britannica, ape-like species, around 16-5.3 million years ago (also known as the Middle and Late Miocene Epoch), lead to the first humans. Based on genetic information, scientists are confident that, more specifically, they existed in the later years (11.6-5.3 million years ago).

These primates from Eurasia and Africa are assumed to have become the first Hominins, or the beginnings of human lineage, in the Pliocene Epoch. Among the species that were developed in that era, Graecopithecus, prevailed as ancestral to the following: Australopithecus, Parenthropus, and Homo of the human lineage, while some additionally believe that great apes such as Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) and Gorilla also came from the species Graecopithecus.

The catalyst for the aforementioned Hominins, was the climatic changes in the Miocene Epoch, as told by BBC.. Forests were replaced by open plains and prairies, which benefited terrestrial life. This meant walking creatures had advantages over terrestrial, or tree-living, creatures, which was a defining factor in the development of bipedalism (the trait of walking on two feet).

Bipedalism is a defining feature of humankind, and though it is not exclusive to humans, we are the only mammalian bipeds to solely use it, while others combine jumping and waddling. Humans advanced further and further into this bipedalism to survive, being able to run away from predators and quickly find food.

As reported by Nature.com, the species Homo sapien, as we now know it, evolved in Africa 315,000 years ago. At the time, Homo sapiens lived alongside Neanderthals and Denisovans (both of which were branches of humanity that are now extinct), and also occasionally interbred, resulting in Neanderthal DNA in most humans excluding those originating from Africa.

The fossils of this species have been found in Europe and West Asia, while the less common Denisovan fossils have been found in Eastern Asia, just 12 years ago.

Neanderthals were defined by their large noses and prominent brow ridges. In stature, they were short and stocky, and had a long, low skull. Overall, they were more compressed and ape-like than humans today, weighing in at anywhere between 64-82kg. They had large front teeth for tough food, and a weak chin, alongside a wide nose, which is theorized to have helped internally warm and moisten the air in their colder environment.

While there is not enough fossil evidence to recreate the appearance of Denisovans, the genetics that we have received lead many scientists to agree on some key features. They may have had a wider jaw and skull, and are theorized to have large molar teeth. This was concluded from a Denisovan jaw bone that was found sporting a high dental arch that suggested the adaptation.

These species went extinct through a pure example of survival of the fittest. Natural selection ran its course as population increased, and, consequently, so did competition.

As mentioned above, climate conditions changed and food became more scarce, leading to a higher death rate. By chance, the random variation that made homosapiens unique, were well suited to these changes and they survived over their counterparts.

Overall, humans did once have multiple species, but one has reigned successfully to become the sole remaining Homo sapiens.

For more information, please visit:

• https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02820-0
• http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150929-why-are-we-the-only-human-species-still-alive

By: Grace Helmke

The ocean is a great mystery. It is the alien world that exists on earth. It houses life so captivating we can’t help but stare at its beauty in awe and fear. Although this great expanse of saltwater accounts for most of our earth, we don’t know a lot about it. The deepest depths of the ocean, where unusual and interesting life resides, remains largely unexplored. However, the few that have dedicated their lives to the pursuit of oceanic discovery, have explored some of the most interesting places on our earth, and have discovered some of the most frightening and enlightening things.  

What is ocean exploration?

Ocean exploration is a process that focuses on discovery. It is the observation and recordation of new species or geological features within these bodies of water. It is not random wandering in hopes of finding the kraken. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, ocean exploration “Is disciplined and organized and includes rigorous observations and documentation of biological, chemical, physiological, geological, and archaeological aspects of the ocean.”

Most of the ocean and its species residing on the continental shelf (the area in the ocean that is shallow, but still submerged), have been discovered, so most of the ocean exploration that goes on today revolves around the deep ocean. 

Current Exploration Missions

The NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) currently have a few missions in place.

The first is the E/V Nautilus field season. Professionals will pilot the Nautilus (an exploration vessel) to explore the coast of North America – starting at the west coast of British Columbia, and moving to California.

Another mission in place is the “Bioprospecting for Industrial Enzymes and Drug Compounds in an Ancient Submarine Forest.” Scientists working for the NOAA are hoping to discover new compounds, found within this forest, that will be used for medicine and biotechnology.

Of course, there are many more missions going on around the world, but these are the most significant projects that are funded by the United States. 

What are some of the most interesting things that have been discovered in the ocean?  

1. Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is the production of light by an organism. There are examples of this throughout all depths of the ocean, but the most common place that bioluminescent organisms reside, is the deep sea. Because the depth, where so many organisms live is completely pitch black, it has been discovered that light is a form of communication between deep sea dwelling organisms.

According to ‘Smithsonian,’ bioluminescence may be the most common form of communication on the planet because of the fact that there is such an abundance of life in the deepest regions of the world. 

2. Deep sea gigantism

Organisms in the deep sea have an inexplicable tendency to grow WAY larger than their family members on the continental shelf, or in the more shallow areas. Of course, there are some animals that reside in the deeps that are of regular size, but there is a large portion that has evolved to become incredible monsters of the deep.

The Oarfish is a great example of this. Their relatives, the ribbon fish, reside in shallow areas, and can reach about 18 inches. However, Oarfish reside in the deep depths of the ocean, and can reach over 50 feet.

Another example of deep sea gigantism is the giant squid, the largest invertebrate on earth. They can reach over 33 ft, and weigh over 440 pounds. This is comparable to squid of the shallows that only grow to about 2 ft. 

3. The Mariana Trench 

An underwater trench containing a pit, that has now been declared the deepest part of the ocean, and subsequently the lowest point on earth, has been discovered in the Pacific Ocean east of the Mariana Islands.

The trench itself is crescent shaped and stretches 1,584 miles on the ocean floor. The pit has been named Challenger deep, and sinks to a depth of 35,800 ft below the surface. 

4. The Immortal Jellyfish 

Only one organism has ever been discovered to have the ability to live forever. That is the Turritopsis Dohrnii, a jellyfish originating in the Carribean and Mediteranian seas. When threatened, they are able to revert back to their juvenile form and start the process of growth all over again.

Essentially, they age in reverse.

Because this is the first of its kind on earth, scientists have speculated that they hold secrets that may provide incredible insight in the medical field. Some even believe we may learn the secret to immortality, however, that speculation is not backed up by any scientific evidence, so it’s likely untrue.  

Our planet is home to some amazing creatures and features, most of which reside in the most foreign place on earth: the oceans. Countless individuals have dedicated their lives to the pursuit of discovery within these bodies of water. It is their mission to understand the mystery that is our oceans, and discover what has yet to be unearthed.

For more on deep sea exploration and some of its wonders, please visit:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDZ39JJsSp0
• https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/backmatter/whatisexploration.html
• Giant squid: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/g/giant-squid/
• Oarfish: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131022-giant-oarfish-facts-sea-serpents/#:~:text=Giant%20oarfish%20are%20the%20longest,600%20pounds%20(270%20kilograms).
• Immortal jelly: https://thebiologist.rsb.org.uk/biologist/158-biologist/features/1510-everlasting-life-the-immortal-jellyfish#:~:text=Where%20do%20’immortal’%20jellyfish%20live,and%20the%20Mediterranean%20(dohrnii).

By Olivia Kendle

Magnetars are neutron stars that form into magnetars themselves. Neutron stars are created when a huge star emits nuclear fuel and explodes, which is then a supernova. The outside layers are released and the very dense core is left which is called the neutron star.

Most cores measure around 14 miles across but weigh more than the Sun because of its density. 90% of the time, those neutron stars are what are called “pulsars,” which spin at a very high rate and shoot off jets of radiation. Only around 10% of those neutron stars turn into magnetars.

Magnetars are surrounded by magnetic fields that are way more stronger than Earth’s magnets,
and they are so magnetic that they could break away at the appropriate atomic level, to any traveler too close.

So far, there have been 29 magnetars discovered in the Milky Way.

Scientists and astronomers have found that magnetars are the main source of FRBs. These blasts of radio wave energy are shot out in less than a millisecond. Astronomers have been confused about magnetars producing FRBs for years, since 2007.

FRB stands for: Fast Radio Burst. Astronomers guess that the FRBs release the same amount of energy as the Sun does in 3 days. FRBs are a short radio pulse of length that is estimated to be a fraction of a millisecond, to a few milliseconds, fast. They are caused by a high-energy astrophysical process that is still a mystery to astronomers.

In April of 2020, astronomers detected, and discovered, with several media telescopes, a magnetar releasing FRBs by the center of the Milky Way. The magnetar was named SGR 1935+2154.

Some FRB rays were too far away from the Milky Way to find the FRB source, but this magnetar was close enough that astronomers were able to track its activity.

For more information, please visit:

• https://astronomy.com/news/2020/11/magnetars-city-sized-magnets-born-from-dying-stars