Category Archives: Science/Nature

Science/Nature

The beauty of covalent bonding!

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By: Maeve Brady

Chemistry, and just science in general, correlates with everything in our lives. Now, something that directly relates to the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the DNA we contain is covalent bonds or also known as covalent bonding. Now, after hearing about this, you may be wondering, what exactly is covalent bonding? Well, after the further analysis I will provide in this article, I hope you gain a better understanding about its properties and how it appears in our everyday lives.

A covalent bond is a common occurrence in our lives. In simpler terms, according to the distinguished researchers at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, “The puppies represent atoms. The bones represent one of their electrons. Both puppies share both bones” Covalent bonding is a phenomenon where elements may share electrons in order to fill their valence electrons to get a full set. This is unlike ionic bonding, where elements steal electrons instead of sharing electrons. Covalent bonds have the goal of sharing their valence electrons to completion.

For context, in the periodic table, all of the elements have valence electrons who are located in the outermost electron shell of an atom. According to its properties, every element wants to become more stable by gaining a full set of eight valence electrons, this minimizes their energy usage and with this full set, or close to full set, of valence electrons, the element becomes less reactive. In certain circumstances, depending on the group in the periodic table, we may see different results in how reactive they are. You can check what group they are in.

If an element is in group five, then it has five electrons existing in it. And if it is in group sixteen, then it has six electrons, not sixteen.  So, in the case of group eighteen, these elements are known as “noble gases”, and they have a complete set of eight valence electrons, meaning they have a full set and are not reactive; they don’t have a reason to bond with different groups in the periodic table besides themselves.

But there are a couple exceptions to this principle. One example is Helium. Helium is a noble gas with only  two valence electrons instead of eight. This is because helium’s single electron shell is already completely filled. Therefore, it still demonstrates this stable and sparse reactivity.

The aspect of covalent bonding is the formation of a complete set of valence electrons after two elements share the adequate amount of electrons with one another. And with this type of bonding there are subcategories of polar and nonpolar covalent bonding.

An example of polar covalent bonding would be the bonding of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen molecule, the chemical structure of water. Oxygen has six valence electrons while each hydrogen molecule has one. This means that oxygen is almost stable and only needs two more electrons for full completion. And this is where the word “polar” comes in. “Polar” is essentially this sense of having polarity, and in the context of covalent bonding, it means a non-uniformed and unequal way of bonding. So, in the case of the chemical formation of the water molecule, oxygen and the hydrogen atoms both share their electrons, which gives them both a full set of valence electrons. But because oxygen has a higher electronegativity-oxygen has the tendency to attract electrons towards itself-so it tends to “hog” the valence electrons, hence, creating this negative charge to the originally neutral element. And with this, it creates these positive charges to the two hydrogen atoms.

Now, on the other hand, there is nonpolar bonding. Nonpolar bonding is described as the more uniformed way of bonding and in the context of covalent bonding, it is when two elements equally share valence electrons. Now, in general, you may come across more nonpolar bonds between the same elements, but that is not always the case. In fact, nonpolar bonding can be executed between two different elements as long as they share valence electrons relatively equally. The most prominent example of nonpolar covalent bonding is when two oxygen atoms can each contribute two valence electrons to complete the others’ set.

Now for the big question. How can we find Covalent Bonding in our everyday lives? Well, that is simple to answer. If we truly analyze it, we can tell that covalent bonds are in more than we may have initially thought. For example, one of the most popular examples is the properties H2O. According to the distinguished researchers at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, “The unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms and the unsymmetrical shape of the molecule means that a water molecule has two poles-a positive charge on the hydrogen pole (side) and a negative charge on the oxygen pole (side). We say that the water molecule is electrically polar.” This demonstrates that a polar covalent bond is how H20 comes about. And we use water in our everyday lives. It is the basis of everything, and something we rely on so heavily. Besides water, covalent bonds also may be found in our air and more, as mentioned in the first paragraph.

Thank you so much for following me along as I explain the basics on covalent bonding! I hope you now have a better understanding of this process and how it appears in our everyday lives.

Science/Nature

What is this strange effect?

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By: Maeve Brady

Many of us may know about the infamous placebo effect. But have you truly taken the time to analyze it and its components? If you did, do you understand it?  Even after wondering about it for a long time, many still can’t comprehend it. Today, I will be explaining the placebo effect and how it affects our youth in schools and the broad picture of it.

Have you ever heard of a placebo? Well, it’s the reason the placebo effect even exists. A placebo is an inactive treatment, surgery, and more. Also, under certain circumstances, a placebo can also be considered to be an action. A placebo directly correlates to the placebo effect because the placebo effect is the feeling you get after you take the placebo. The placebo effect works by turning on the body’s natural mechanisms that may help us feel better. Our brains make many substances that can lessen pain, anxiety, nausea, and more. This is also known as placebo analgesia.

Like I said, the placebo effect derives from the mind rather than the actual effect the drug has. This can be seen in the fact that you can be aware that you are taking a placebo for the effect to still work. Many believe that you have to be unconscious of the placebo in order for it to work, but in reality, if you have the expectation of the placebo having a positive effect on you, then it may. There is also such a thing as the Nocebo effect; it’s the opposite of the placebo effect where you believe that a placebo has a negative effect on you.

According to Olsen (2021), a Senior Media Relations Officer at Dartmouth, in a recent research conducted by Tor Wager and Diana L. Taylor, who are distinguished professors in Neuroscience, “‘Our findings demonstrate that the participants who showed the most pain reduction with the placebo also showed the largest reductions in brain areas associated with pain construction.’” After further research, according to Olson (2021), “With the large sample, the researchers were able to confidently localize placebo effects to specific zones of the brain, including the thalamus and the basal ganglia.” Scientists believe that because these two areas are involved in the sequence of connecting pain to action, the placebo effect may occur in them and largely impact these regions. Scientists also believe that the prefrontal cortex may have something to do with it.

The placebo effect may affect our youth in many different ways. In recent research conducted by psychologists Ulrich Weger, Ph.D. and Stephen Loughnan, some students were under the impression that the material they studied was enriched and better for the test while some believed that it was worse. According to the two psychologists, “Participant performance was indeed enhanced, compared to a group that did not think the priming process would improve their knowledge.” This demonstrates that the students’ actions could overall affect their academic performance.

The placebo effect is a very complex phenomenon whose properties are still being researched. I hope that from this text you’ve learned a little about the basics and how it affects our youth.

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Science/Nature

Space shuttle equipment

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By: Yohan Lee

What is the space shuttle? The space shuttle was the first reusable spacecraft and since it could be flown again it helped reduce the cost of each launch. It could take off in a vertical take off and could land like a plane.

The space shuttle was built by NASA and during earlier space missions such as the Apollo program, NASA had to build 15 different Saturn V rockets. But for the space shuttle, NASA only had to build 5.

The first space shuttle launch was on April 12, 1981 and the final landing was on July 21, 2011. The space shuttle fleet flew over 135 missions. Some of the space shuttles are in museums in California, New York, Florida, and Washington D.C.

In early 2011 you could see the space shuttle on top of a 747 before it was retired.

Here are some of the technical specifics of the space shuttle.

COMPONENTS

Orbiter:

In the cabin it contained living quarters, workstations, and controls for up to seven astronauts. The space shuttle had a payload bay for carrying satellites, scientific equipment, and components for the International Space Station. The payload could be found on top of the space shuttle. There were three powerful engines used during liftoff, fueled by the external tank.

Thermal Protection System:

The Thermal Protection System was made of heat resistant tiles and blankets that protected the orbiter from the heat during reentry.

Canadarm:

A Canadarm is a long robot arm and it was used for manipulating payloads, assembling structures in orbit, and capturing satellites.

External Tank:

The External Tank was the huge orange fuel tank located at the bottom of the space shuttle. It was made out of an aluminum-lithium alloy to minimize weight. It was used to fuel the space shuttle during its launch into space, then it would detach from the space shuttle and burn up in the atmosphere.

Solid Rocket Boosters:

The Solid Rocket Boosters are the long white rockets that were attached to the fuel tanks. They were used for an additional set of thrust for takeoff before they detached. They were made out of aluminum and ammonium perchlorate. They were also fitted with a parachute for an ocean landing so NASA could reuse that rocket.

Orbital Maneuvering Systems:

The Orbital Maneuvering Systems was a small engine that allowed the space shuttle to make small adjustments in space. 2 of them could be found at the back of the space shuttle.

Image created with Blender
Science/Nature

NASA’s Artemis program

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By: Karl Salkowski

(Image credit: freerangestock)

NASA is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA was created on October 1st, 1958 after president Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act. NASA is a government agency of the United States, and it is responsible for U.S. space exploration, space technology, Earth and space science, and aeronautics research.

In total, 24 astronauts have made the journey from earth to the moon. Half of those astronauts only orbited the moon while the other half landed on it. Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin were the first two people to walk on the moon. It’s been over 50 years since anyone has walked on the moon, but why is that?

The main reason is money. Building these rockets was incredibly expensive and NASA relied heavily on funding from the government. Once the Apollo 11 mission in 1969 was a success and the U.S. had won the space race, NASA faced major funding cuts. Originally, there were 20 Apollo missions, but due to a lack of funds the last 3 were canceled.

Since then NASA has focused on other projects. One notable example being the International Space Station. However, one of NASA’s new projects aims to land humans back on the moon.

NASA’s Artemis program consists of 4 main parts: an uncrewed flight test around the moon, a crewed flight test around the moon, sending humans to explore the region near the lunar south pole, and finally establishing a scientific base on the moon. These missions will aptly be named Artemis I, II, III, and IV respectively. With these missions, NASA’s goal is both to “explore the moon for scientific discovery and to inspire a new generation of explorers” according to Nasa.gov.

Artemis I launched 2 years ago and was a huge success for NASA and its partners. However, the crewed mission (Artemis II) which was slated to launch in late 2025 has now been delayed to April 2026. Artemis III also suffered delays and is currently being projected to launch no-earlier than mid 2027.

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Local, Science/Nature

Minnesotan winter activities and climate change

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By: Gabriella Bell

Minnesota is most commonly recognized for its drastic weather changes, harsh summers and winters alike. It’s also known for its diverse range of winter activities such as hockey, skiing, ice fishing, and more. Although in order to partake in these recreational hobbies, the most important factor is for there to be cold enough weather, and most importantly snowfall. In Minnesota this would normally never be much of a problem, however as of recent years, data is demonstrating that climate change is having a severe impact on not only these winter sports, but also local wildlife as well as our environment.

According to the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, worldwide climate change is also leading to a warmer Minnesota. Their stats represent an increase in the daily minimum temperature of 7.3f in the northern regions of Minnesota, 6f in the central regions, and 4.9f in the southern regions (per data from 1895-2021).

Another major impact that climate change has is in our ice cover, with an observed 10-15 days less as of these past few years. With these changes, it is ultimately impacting Minnesota fish as well, considering they are losing necessary days of ice cover, which protect them from the harsh winters. With the lack of ice, it is also contributing to the inability to begin and prolong ice fishing, ice skating and other ice-related activities that many people participate in during our Minnesota winters. Along with this unpredictable ice cover, it’s affecting the amount of flooding that the state receives, as the ice forms and then melts soon after. It then continues to follow this repeating cycle throughout the winter months until late spring.

Another factor is the inconsistent snowfalls that have been recently scattered across the winters. One of Minnesota’s most notable aspects is their snow! Not only does this affect the ability to play certain winter sports such as skiing or snowmobiling, but it also impacts the enjoyment of participating in them as well.

Per stats from the EPA, carbon dioxide levels across the world have risen over 40% since the late 1700’s, which is what’s contributing to the immense amount of climate changes worldwide, as well as in Minnesota. Not only is this a serious issue which is affecting our environment, but Minnesota’s winters are progressively growing to be much shorter, warmer and unpredictable than ever before.

As a unified community I believe that we can make changes in our lives, even small ones, in order to begin to help the restoration and conservation of our Minnesota winters, as well as the environmental health of our world.

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Science/Nature

Climate change’s effects on Alaska

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By: Siri David

Photo by Tomu00e1u0161 Malu00edk on Pexels.com

Alaska is a prime example of climate change and the effects from it. Alaska has been facing these effects for more than 50 years. The environment there is changing everyday and there is only so much time left to be able to save it.

The state has warmed 3 degrees Fahrenheit, on average, in the summer and 6 degrees in the winter. This seems like a small change but it is actually a lot, and makes a big difference. The state has seen a lot of changes like glaciers shrinking, shores eroding, wildfires, and insects breaking out. These are all effects of climate change, and effects that are likely to continue rising.

These things are happening because of the earth getting warmer. Since the late 1700’s the amount of carbon dioxide that humans put into the atmosphere has increased by 40 percent. Along with that, heat trapping greenhouse gasses also increase at a fast rate. Both of these things cause humidity to increase which causes more rain in areas but can also cause droughts in other areas.

More carbon dioxide being put into the atmosphere also affects the oceans. Carbon dioxide mixed with water forms a carbonic acid which means that the ocean is more acidic. The ocean temperature has also been getting warmer which is why it feels like countries that are really cold face the most effects of climate change.

Whether it feels like it or not the world is suffering and we need to help it. There are a lot of big and little things we can do to help the environment and specifically Alaska. The smaller things include turning off lights when you leave a room, not letting your water run for longer than needed, and trying to walk/bike places more.

A larger thing you can do to make a difference is donating to organizations that work to clean up trash and the environment. If you don’t have the money for that you can personally work to clean up your community.

Something that I think really really does help is speaking up about it and staying updated on what is happening. Along with that, I think teaching people about what is happening to one of the most beautiful states in our country is so important and something we should all take action to fix.

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Getting To Know/History, Science/Nature

What is the X-59?

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By: Yohan Lee

Imagine flying at the speed of sound and cruising over public places whilst not hearing the sound barrier over you. Well, today I’m going to talk about the X-59 and the history of it.

The X-59 was built by NASA and Lockheed Martin. They both came together to try to build a supersonic aircraft that is quiet when flying over you. The X-59 development began in 2016 and the first machined part was made in 2018, then was revealed to the public on January 12, 2024. The X-59 was built in Lockheed Martin’s Skunk Works facility in Palmdale, California.

What is supersonic? Supersonic is a loud sound of an object going over 700 miles per hour. Think of a whip and whipping it. That crackle is exceeding over 700 miles per hour. That crackle is a mini sonic boom. But the X-59 just can’t fly at 700 miles per hour or Mach 1. The X-59 can fly at Mach 1.42 or 940 miles per hour. When the X-59 flies over you at Mach 1 you would only hear a tiny thud. That little thud is about 75 db or just below a jet flying over you at 1000 feet which is about 106 db.

The reason why NASA and Lockheed Martin are trying to quiet the sonic boom is because it’s illegal to fly supersonic over the public for 3 main reasons. They don’t want to startle people thinking we’re going to war, it might kill someone or an animal (out of shock or knocking them over), and it can cause property damage as in breaking windows.

So, how can the X-59 achieve going over Mach 1 while barely hearing the sonic boom? Well, it starts with the nose of the aircraft. The X-59 has a sharp nose that cuts through the air making the aerodynamics much better and thus making the X-59 fly faster. The same goes for the delta wings. The reason why the X-59 has delta wings is because it reduces the effects of the shock waves and makes the sonic boom a quieter sonic boom thump.

The X-59 engines are the f414-GE-100 which are the same engines that are used for the F/A-18E/F/G. But the gears are the same gears that the F-16 uses.

The X-59 comes about 100 feet in length and 30 feet in width. The nose takes up half of the size and since the X-59 nose is long you can’t see much throughout the window. So, that’s why the X-59 is equipped with a camera at the end of the nose to see in front of the nose and to see the other side. The X-59 is equipped with 3 screens, one of them is the camera and the other two are for your basic flight instruments which tell what your plane is doing. Since the X-59 just came out, a lot of stuff is still classified.

So, how can it change aviation? Well, NASA and Lockheed Martin are planning to make a quiet supersonic plane and redesign it to be a commercial plane so we civilians can fly over Mach 1 at 700 miles per hour. For a regular flight from a 737, it takes 5 hours to get to California to Florida flying at a speed of 587 miles per hour. But when you’re flying the X-59 it would only take 3 hours flying at 700 miles per hour.

Why are NASA and Lockheed Martin working together to make the X-59? NASA has its team called QUESST which brings Lockheed Martin and NASA together, and under QUESST is The Quiet Crew. The Quiet Crew is a group assigned specifically to design and fly the X-59. Lockheed Martin collects data and helps build the X-59 since NASA doesn’t own many F-16s and F-18s, and again, the X-59 uses the F-18’s engines and F-16’s gears.

Before NASA had an idea to make the X-59 and convert it to a commercial airplane, the Concorde was the first ever super sonic commercial airliner. The United Kingdom and France made the Concorde in 1969. There were only two airliners who flew the Concorde and it was British Airways and Air France. The Concorde unfortunately retired on November 26, 2003, due to high maintenance and fewer people flying the Concorde since each ticket cost $10,000. Plus, the Concorde was super loud which caused many people to not like the Concorde. The Concorde could fly 2 times faster than the speed of sound or 1,354 miles per hour due to the Concorde having 4 Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 engines. Something interesting is that the X-59 and the Concorde had some similarities. They both had a long and sharp nose, delta wings and had stabilizers.

NASA said that the X-59 is going to come out in mid-2030 and hopefully in the future we will have a supersonic commercial airplane. And this is why the X-59 is going to change aviation.

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Science/Nature

Top 5 poisonous plants (not in order)

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By: Cleo Newton

Poisonous plants can look like any other plant if you don’t know which is which. According to Britannica.com, the following are considered to be the world’s most poisonous plants.

Water Hemlock

This plant looks a lot like the Water Parsnip (Sium suave), they’re both made up of clusters of small, white flowers. The Water Hemlock (Cicuta maculata) is the deadliest plant in North America and is closely related to the Poison Hemlock. What makes this plant so deadly is the cicutoxin it’s infused with, especially so in the roots. If you eat this plant, the poison will rapidly generate symptoms that are potentially fatal. Symptoms such as abdominal cramps, nausea, convulsions and death are common. Those who survive eating a Water Hemlock usually have lasting tremors or amnesia.

Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna)

The Deadly Nightshade has shiny black berries and dull green leaves. The sweet berries this plant produces are very poisonous and it’s usually children and unknowing adults that eat these berries. The leaves, roots and berries of this plant contain atropine and scopolamine. Consuming this plant will cause the involuntary muscles in the body to be paralyzed, including the heart. Touching this plant can cause skin irritation.

White Snakeroot

Like the Water Hemlock, this plant has a cluster of small white flowers. These flowers contain a toxic alcohol called trematol. Directly ingesting this plant causes death. You can even die if this poison indirectly makes its way into your body. Eating the meat and/or drinking the milk from poisoned livestock can pass the toxin onto the consumer. Symptoms include nausea, loss of appetite, weakness, abnormal acidity of the blood and death.

Castor Bean (Ricinus communis)

The Castor Bean is widely grown as an ornamental plant; it’s an attractive plant to Africa. Castor oil comes from processed Castor seeds, which naturally contain the poison ricin. Ricin is so deadly that it only takes one or two seeds to kill a child. It takes up to eight to kill an adult. What ricin does is that it impedes the synthesis of proteins in cells, and can cause severe vomiting, seizures, diarrhea, and death. Most of these deaths are caused by the accidental consumption by kids and pets.

Photo by Plantpool images on Pexels.com

Oleander (Nerium oleander)

Like the Castor Bean, this plant is also grown as an ornamental plant. All parts of this plant are poisonous. Oleander contain cardiac glycosides called oleandrin and neriine. Eating this plant can cause diarrhea, erratic pulse, vomiting, coma, seizures, and death, while coming into contact with the sap or leaves of Oleander can irritate the skin. Like the White Snakeroot, this plant is so toxic that people have fallen ill from indirectly ingesting the poison. People have become sick from eating the honey made from bees that visited this flower. Luckily, Oleander isn’t as commonly consumed as it’s very bitter.

After reading this article, I hope you’ve learned a bit more about poisonous plants.

Editorials/Student Voice, Science/Nature

Risks of rising temperatures

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By: Siri David

Photo taken by me

In Saint Paul there is a very huge risk with heat rising. The number of the hottest days keeps increasing yearly. This is a huge issue. In the past there was an average of no more than seven days a year that reached higher than 91.2^F. By 2050 it is estimated that there will be up to an average of 36 days a year that reach over that temperature of 91.2.

With temperatures rising this fast there are a lot of health concerns for people. Heat exhaustion and heat stroke are things that can happen to the human body when in the heat for too long. These are a few signs of heat exhaustion: getting light headed, weakness, heavy sweating, and muscle cramps are all really common signs. Heat stroke signs are: dry mouth, hot skin, vomiting, confusion, and seizures.

These are really important things that you need to make sure you’re aware of as temperature rises. If these signs are happening try to get into a cooler setting as soon as possible. If that is not possible try putting water on your neck and wrists, because that will help your body cool down faster.

There are a lot of ways, as humans though, we can work to decrease heat rising so fast. Conserving energy is really important. That means doing little things like turning off all the lights when you leave, not letting your water run for longer than needed, and driving less can also help a lot. Doing these things helps conserve energy.

Another thing that can help out a lot is reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This means trying to use renewable energy sources like solar and hydro powers instead of using fossil fuels. Using electrical vehicles can also help out a lot.

Taking little or larger steps like these can really help the environment, and stop the climate from getting so warm so fast. This is a task that takes all of us one community at a time.

Science/Nature

Glaciers

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By: Samson Belihu

Image created with AskAI

Glaciers – they are massive, slow moving bodies of ice that form over centuries from accumulated snow.
They are vital indicators of climate change, as they respond sensitively to temperature variation. Unfortunately, global warming has led to significant glacial decline, impacting ecosystems, sea level, and global water patterns.

Causes of Glacier Melting

Rising global temperatures are causing glacial melting. Average global temperatures have increased due to greenhouse gas emission from human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and industrial progress. This warming accelerates the melting of glaciers, particularly in the polar and mountain regions.

Warmer ocean waters also contribute to the melting of glaciers. This is mostly happening in Greenland and Antarctica, which could potentially lead to flooding.

Consequences of Glacier Melting

Melting glaciers contribute to sea level rise, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems. The increased glacial melting also impacts water supplies. Many regions rely on glacial meltwater for drinking water. As glaciers shrink, communities soon will face water shortages impacting agriculture.

Restoration Efforts

There are several organizations and companies that are focused on restoring glaciers, and the oceans temperature such as: Arctic Ice Project, Greennova Foundation, Mountain Wilderness, etc.

These groups are trying to slow glacial retreat through active intervention. For instance, some projects involve the application of reflective materials on glaciers to increase their albedo and reduce melting. Albedo is a measure of how much sunlight is reflected off of a surface, and it is important for glaciers because it helps regulate the earth’s temperature.

Some companies also research and monitor the changes of glaciers over time. There are also organizations that are working to raise awareness about the importance of glaciers and the big impact they have on climate change.

The melting of glaciers is a massive issue that is caused by climate change, with high consequences for our ecosystems, communities, and global sea levels. Many companies and organizations have stepped up to help with the restoration and conserve these glaciers, which hold many histories that many scientists have not gotten their hands on. There is hope to negate some of the impact of climate change on glaciers, and preserve them for the future generations.

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